Pack Mules, Pickets, and Sangars: Mountain Warfare Methods of the Iraqi Army

Introduction

Since its inception in 1921, the Iraqi Army has engaged almost continuously in counterinsurgency activities in rebellious Kurdish provinces of the mountainous North. From the beginning, Iraqi mountain warfare doctrine was based on British, and later Indian, sources. As the Kurdish insurgency intensified in the 1970s and again in the 1980s, the Iraqi Army tried to adjust and adapt various methods and tactics to counter those of the insurgents, who were very adept at using heavily mountainous terrain as natural protection. However, by the late 1980s, Iraq's frustrated counterinsurgency campaign degenerated into something approaching genocide, marked by the use of chemical weapons. Since 1991, Iraqi Kurds in the northern mountains have been protected by the United Nations Exclusion Zone and the U.S./UK-enforced "No-Fly Zone" above the 36° latitudinal. The so called "Green Line" separating the Iraqi Army from the Kurdish Autonomous Zone (KAZ) is located, at some points, as close as 25 km to the mountains. If or when Iraq attempts to regain control of all territory within its borders, including the KAZ, the advance of Iraqi ground forces into the Kurdish-controlled mountains will include the employment of dated, but still valid, methods and techniques derived from older British and Indian doctrine. This article focuses on three main elements that characterize Iraqi mountain warfare methods:

Specialized Units

Introduction

With its long history of counterinsurgency campaigns in Kurdistan, the Iraqi Army, over the years, has designed numerous specialized combat and support units especially for fighting in mountainous terrain. These units are characterized by their lightness and ability to be transported by pack animals.

Infantry

Mountain infantry battalions differ from regular (or "plains") infantry battalions only in the substitution of an animal transport platoon for the regular motor transport platoon. The animal transport platoon is estimated to consist of 90-100 pack mules. These infantry battalions carry a considerable amount of man- and animal-portable firepower (see figure 1). Besides regular and mountain infantry battalions, commando infantry units are often assigned counterinsurgency missions in northern Iraq. Commando battalions are much smaller and lighter than regular infantry battalions and have fewer administrative and fire support elements. A commando battalion has 602 personnel, divided into three companies, and its firepower includes 20 sniper rifles, 36 RPG-7's, 36 light machineguns, 8 medium machineguns, and 20 hand-held, 60-mm commando mortars.

Figure 1.  Organization of an Iraqi Mountain Infantry Battalion

Artillery

Mountain artillery regiments are equipped with 75-mm, 76-mm, or 105-mm pack howitzers, which disassemble for transport by pack mules. A regiment (battalion equivalent) has 658 personnel and is divided into three batteries of two platoons each, with two guns per platoon, for a total of 12 guns per regiment. Also organic to the regiment are 225 pack mules, 69 gun mules, and 22 riding mounts (horses or mules.) A mountain artillery mule is expected to carry 170 kg (375 lbs). A particularly strong breed of mule is required, which is used exclusively in this role.

Additionally, heavy mortar batteries, called "light batteries," are routinely employed in mountain operations. A light battery contains 12 120-mm mortars, divided into three platoons. It has 160 personnel.

Where terrain permits, elements from regular field (105-mm to 122-mm) or medium (130-mm-155-mm) artillery regiments may also be employed. These regiments are equipped with 18 guns. If used in mountain operations, these guns would normally be required in relatively sparse numbers. In such cases, the number of rounds per gun is more important than the number of guns.

Transport and Supply

The primary means of transport for ammunition, equipment, and supplies used by the Iraqi Army in mountain operations is pack mules. Air-drop supply and helicopter transport also played a major supplemental role before the imposition of the northern No-Fly Zone in 1991.

Specialized mountain transport companies provide second-echelon transport for combat formations operating in mountainous terrain. A mountain transport company is equipped with 631 pack mules and 131 riding mules. It has 549 personnel and is divided into five platoons of four sections each. A standard service mule is expected to carry 80 kg (175 lb) of cargo, although it can be loaded up to 95 kg (210 lb) if it is in good condition. It is expected to cross 8 km of rough terrain in a day loaded and 4 km at night.

The Iraqi ground forces also have a single battalion-size unit, specialized in organizing air supply operations, which was utilized in mountain campaigns prior to 1991. It is called the Air Maintenance and Supply Unit and consists of a parachute rigging and storage company, a heavy air supply company, and a light air supply company. The unit's operational duties include preparing and packing loads, packing parachutes and loading aircraft. It also provides technicians for dropping loads. The unit does not have any organic aircraft, but rather works with Air Force and Army Aviation Corps units. It is equipped with various 1-ton and smaller containers and 800- to 24,000-lb-capacity platforms. This air supply unit will doubtless play a major role again in future Iraqi mountain counterinsurgency campaigns.

Likewise, before the imposition of sanctions and No-Fly Zones, Mi-8 helicopter units shared the burden of transport and resupply operations in mountainous areas; they will resume that role in the future. An Iraqi medium transport helicopter squadron consists of 20 aircraft; a heavy transport squadron has 12 helicopters.

Combat Formations

Iraqi doctrine focuses on conducting counterinsurgency operations at the brigade level in mountainous areas. A typical Brigade Group task-organized for mountain counterinsurgency operations would consist of the Group's headquarters, a signals platoon, three or four infantry battalions, a mountain artillery regiment, a light battery (120-mm mortars), a field engineer squadron (company equivalent), a field medical unit, a mountain transport company, and a forward supply store. An armored car squadron (company equivalent) could be added where terrain permits. A task force allocated to carry out a mission would usually comprise a full formation; i.e., an infantry battalion and an artillery battery. An engineering detachment and/or a medical detachment could be attached to the force, as well as additional fire support in the form of heavy mortars. Armored cars could also be attached if the route permits movement of vehicles. In an advance to contact, for example, one such formation is allocated to the advance guard and another to the rear guard. The rest of the main body moves between them.

Fire Support

Introduction

Every operation in mountain warfare is inevitably accompanied by covering fire and supporting fire. Light machineguns and rifles of infantry sections and platoons provide covering fire. Artillery, mortars, medium machineguns, and aviation assets (when available) provide supporting fire.

Artillery

Mountain artillery is usually employed in separate platoons. One of the platoons must take a firing position and be prepared to provide support, while another platoon, which is packed on animals, moves to carry out another support mission. The following targets are allocated to artillery: mountain peaks, high obstacles on which other supporting weapons cannot fire, and slightly inclined reverse slopes. Guns are rarely used separately, unless terrain considerations require it; however, separate guns in a platoon that has assumed a firing position may be employed to strike multiple targets. When artillery executes support missions, it assumes concealed firing positions near the routes on which the column moves.

Mortars

Mortars (82-mm and 120-mm) are employed as a platoon, in pairs, or individually, as are mountain artillery and medium machineguns. In view of their ability to fire in a high, arched trajectory, mortars are allocated the following targets: dead ground which other supporting weapons cannot handle; deep wadis; large, deep impressions; and reverse slopes.

Medium Machineguns

Machineguns operate in sections. One section must assume a ready-to-fire position, while another section is packed and ready to move to execute another support mission. The following targets are allocated to medium machineguns: forward slopes located on advance and withdrawal routes, flanks of pickets, flat or slightly elevated terrain located on advance routes, and open wadis.

Tactics

Iraqi doctrine recognizes that while most principles observed in other types of warfare are applicable to mountain warfare, the nature of the terrain and enemy requires the addition of certain techniques to enable the application of such basic tactics as movement to contact, patrols, and ambushes (see figure 2). These specialized methods include a heavy reliance on the posting of pickets (Arabic: rabaya). The two most common types of pickets used are route pickets and camp pickets. Route pickets form part of the advance guard of forces on the march or advancing to contact, and also cover withdrawals. Camp pickets are used for base camp protection and, being static, generally construct specialized fortifications known as sangars.

Figure 2.  Iraqi Mountain Infantry on Patrol

Pickets

Forces advancing to an objective through valleys or narrow passes are vulnerable to enemy fire. The advance guard protects the flanks of an advancing column by detaching forces, along with support weapons, to the flanks of the route on which the column is moving. These detached forces are known as route pickets. They occupy a peak or high ground to prevent the enemy from firing on the column. The picket usually comprises a rifle company, platoon, or two sections, and may include forward observation officers. The distance to which the picket is sent depends on the terrain; in any case, it usually must not exceed 2500 meters from the column if the insurgents possess mortars, mountain guns, etc. There are two picket–posting methods:

Execution of either of the above-mentioned methods requires the column's various units to advance in a close, organized fashion: the closer and more organized the column, the shorter the period required for the column to complete its advance.

Picket posting is time consuming, especially when enemy engagement occurs; therefore, the advance guard's speed is not expected to exceed 1.5 km/h. To prevent the main body from making repeated stops unnecessarily, the advance guard must start its advance before the main body. The time at which the advance guard sets out will depend on the number of pickets that can be sent out from the base camp; this number, in turn, will depend on the advance guard's overall strength and the terrain.

In mountainous terrain, a column usually moves 6-8 km, or as many as 12 km per day. This distance may be reduced to 4-5 km, depending on the number of pickets sent out by the advance party and the distance of the objective from the column.

A picket continues its advance until it reaches its predesignated position, even if under fire. The column cannot advance until the picket is in position. The picket will assault a position occupied by the enemy, calling in additional fire support if necessary. It then occupies a defensive position that provides all-around protection and is suited for continuous monitoring of the area and the route. The picket will then wait for the arrival of the column's rear guard, and upon receiving the withdrawal signal, move out to its next position along the route.

Sangars

Camp pickets require shelter and protection. Since digging fire positions and constructing bunkers is nearly impossible on mountain ridges, the Iraqis have adopted a method of fortification especially suited to mountain warfare. These fortifications are called "sangars," an Indo-Iranian term used by the British Army for over a century to describe a breastwork in the form of stone walls built without bonding material. If stones are unavailable at or near the picket site, sandbags must be brought in to build the sangar. Sangars can be as large as small forts and have both outer and inner walls; tents or other shelters can be erected inside the walls. Terrain, mission, and the number of picket troops occupying the sangar determine its location, size, and shape:

Figure 3.  Dumbbell Sangar (Overhead View); Sangar
Walls (Side and Front Views)

Since sangar walls must be bulletproof, they should not have holes in them. Smaller rocks must be used to fill in spaces. A layer of sandbags or sod should be placed on top of the wall to reduce ricochets. The top of the wall should be flat and slanted to the outside to facilitate firing. Above the top of sangar walls, defenders' heads can present prominent targets for enemy snipers. Therefore, a number of large rocks, each the size of a soldier's head, are placed at uneven intervals along the top of the wall to function as battlements and make the mission of enemy snipers more difficult. The time required for 50 soldiers to build a sangar surrounded by single-layer barbed wire is 31.4 hours.

Conclusion

Since the founding of the state, the Iraqi Army has had a need for specialized mountain warfare units, tactics, and methodologies. This need will continue, regardless of any future settlement of the Kurdish issue that would ultimately maintain "Kurdistan's" inclusion within Iraq. In a post-sanctions era, lifting the arms embargo and northern No-Fly Zone would permit the Iraqis to upgrade equipment and increase reliance on helicopters and other aircraft, but mountain warfare will always come down to foot soldier against foot soldier and man against the elements/environment. For these reasons and for the foreseeable future, the hallmarks of Iraqi mountain warfare methods will continue to be pack mules, pickets and sangars.